Gram(Chickpea) Pest Management

The major insect pest that attack chickpea is cut worm early after emergence and the pod borer during pod formation and maturity period. Now how can we manage them?

      While trying to reduce the pest attack on the crops, keep one thing in mind that we don't need to erradicate it completely from the field, we just need to manage it to a certain level so that it could not harm our crop to an extent that would reflect into our economic loss. Now for the purpose of management of these insect pests, first we need to understand them.

Gram Cutworm

  The caterpillar stage of this worm causes damage to the young seedlings of the gram crop. The worms hide in the daytime under the soil or the crop debris and feed in the night.

Symptoms and Damage Caused

The stem of the young seedlings of crop are cut down about a few centimeters above ground. We can know the extent of presence of worm by stirring the soil around the infested plant upto 2.5cm depth. In case of severe infestation resowing of entire field can be required. 

Control/Management Tactics

1. Deep summer ploughing to expose the pupa of the worm to the scorching sun to kill.

2. Seed treatment can prevent economic loss at very much extent in any crop, so seed treatment with chlorpyriphos 20EC @ 1 litre for every 100kg of seeds.

3. Dusting of Quinolphos 1.5% DP @ 23.33 kg/ha in the soil before last harrowing if the field was severely attacked last year.

4. Spray trash on the field in rows or patches beneath which the worms will hide during daytime and thus can be killed by manually collecting or spraying. 

5. The larval parasitoid Cotesia vanessae can be used to release in the field if available in the market. It has only females and they lay eggs inside the body of caterpillar of the cutworm to kill it.

6. Use the control measures only if there is too much damage. Otherwise it would be the waste of money and time.

7. For spraying target only the infested area and the buffer of 30 feet wide around it and not the whole field.

Note: Cutworm is often mistaken with click beetles and flying maggots.

सोयाबीन खोडमशी आणि चक्रिभुंगा नियंत्रण

 

How to cultivate oyster mushroom easily at home

How to cultivate oyster mushroom at home easily

तूर लागवड आणि सुधारित पद्धत भाग 1

शेतकरी मित्रांनो तूर हा भारतीय आहारामधील एक महत्त्वाचा घटक आहे. तुरीला काही भागात अरहर सुद्धा म्हणतात. तुरीला प्रामुख्याने डाळीच्या स्वरूपात खाल्ले जाते. तुरीमध्ये प्रामुख्याने लोह, आयोडीन आणि महत्त्वाचे अमिनो ॲसिड्स आढळतात. तुरीचे कुटार गुरांना खाद्य म्हणून वापरले जाते.

हवामान आणि जमीन

हवामान: तुर मुुुख्यत्वे उष्ण आणि समशीतोष्ण हवामानात वाढते. शाखीय वाढीसाठी तुरीला उष्ण व दमट हवामान गरजेचे असते.

जमीन: तुर हे पीक रेताळ जमिनीपासून ते चिकणमाती पर्यंत वाढवल्या जाऊ शकते. जमीन पाण्याचा उत्तम निचरा होणारी असावी.

जमिनीची मशागत: तुरीची मूळे खोलवर जात असल्याने जमीन 15 सेंमी इतकी खोलवर नांगरून घ्यावी. नंतर 2 ते 3 वाखराच्या पळ्या द्याव्या.

पेरणीची वेळ: खरीपातील कोरडवाहू तुरीची पेरणी जून महिण्याच्या शेवटच्या आठव्यापासून ते जुलै च्या पहिल्या पंधरवड्यात करावी. बागायती तुरीची लागवड जून च्या सुरुवातीला करावी. दोन तासांतील अंतर हे तुरीमध्ये 6 ते 9 फूट इतके ठेवावे तर दोन झाडांतील अंतर हे किमान 1 ते  कमाल 2 फूट इतके ठेवावे. 

बीजप्रक्रिया: बियाणे पेरण्यापूर्वी कार्बेन्डाझिम किंवा थायरम 3 ग्राम प्रती किलो बियाणे ची प्रक्रिया करावी. परत थायमिथॉक्झम 30% FS 5 मिली प्रति किलो बियाणे तसेच रायझोबियम 25 ग्राम प्रती किलो बियाणे या जिवाणू खताची प्रक्रिया करावी.

खत व्यवस्थापन: तुर हे पीक रासायनिक खतांना फारसा प्रतिसाद देत नाही. 10 टन चांगले कुजलेले शेणखत शेवटच्या कोळपणीच्या वेळी जमिनीमध्ये मिसळावे. 20 कीलो नत्र, 40 किलो स्फुरद आणि 25-30 किलो पालाश प्रति हेक्टरी सर्व पेरणी सोबत द्यावे.

पाणी व्यवस्थापन: तुर हे पीक अत्यंत कमी (200-250 मिमी) पावसातही चांगल्या प्रकारे येते. खरिपातील तुरीला सहसा पाणी देण्याची गरज नसते पण तरीसुद्धा जर फुले येण्यापूर्वी एक पाणी दिले तर फुलांच्या संख्येत भरपूर वाढ होते. तसेच सर्व फुलांचे रूपांतर शेंगांमध्ये झाले की एक शेवटचे पाणी द्यावे त्यामुळे शेंगांचा विकास चांगल्याप्रकारे होतो.

तण नियंत्रण: तुरीमध्ये तण नियंत्रण महत्त्वाचे असते. कारण ताणामुळे तुरीच्या उत्पादनामध्ये 90% पर्यंत घट होऊ शकते. त्यासाठी उगवण पूर्व तणनाशक अलाक्लोर 3 लिटर प्रति हेक्टर किंवा फ्लूकलोरालीन 1 किलो  active ingredient (सक्रिय घटक) प्रति हेक्टरी वापरावे. याशिवाय डवरणी आणि निंदन करावेे.

Prosomillet cultivation

Climate

It requires warm climate. It is hardy and highly draught resistant. Its water requirement is low and can be grown in scanty rainfall areas. It can withstand water stagnation also to some extent.

Soil

It can be grown on wide range of soils from rich to poor soils. Well drained loam or sandy soil free from Konkan and rich in organic matter is ideal for the cultivation of prosomillet.

Land preparation

Soon after harvest of crop, the land should be ploughed and left as such. After onset of monsoon, 2-3 harrowings should be given. Before last harrowing, required quantity of farm yard manure should be spread and mixed in the soil.

Seed rate and spacing

Seed rate depends upon method of sowing. The crop is sown either by broadcasting seeds over the soil or by drilling the seeds in the soil with the help of seed drill. Row to row 25 cm and plant to plant 10 cm spacing should be maintained.

Seed treatment

Before sowing, the seeds should be treated with Thiram or ceresan @ 2.5 g/kg of seed for controlling fungal diseases.

Method of sowing

Broadcasting of seeds over the soil or drilling the seeds in the soil with the help of seed drill is a common practice. Line sowing is better than broadcasting as it ensures conform plant stand and facilitate intercultural operations. Sowing depth should not be more than 3-4 cm.

Manures and fertilizers

Five to ten tonnes of farm yard manure per hectare should be applied before last harrowing if available. Prosomillet requires less amount of nutrient compared to other cereals. Application of 40:20:20 kg NPK/ha is sufficient to get the expected yield. Half quantity of nitrogen and full dose of phosphorus and potassium should be applied at the time of sowing. The remaining half dose of N should be given after 1 month of sowing.

Water management

Generally Kharif crop does not require any irrigation. But if there is adry spell for longer time at tillering stage, one irrigation must be given to boost the yield. Summer crop requires 2-4 irrigations depending upon soil type, climatic conditions and availability of irrigation water. First irrigation at 25 - 30 DAS and second irrigation at 30 - 45 DAS should be given. Heavy irrigation is not generally advisible because of shallow root system.

Weed management

The field should be kept weed free upto 35 days after sowing. One or two intercultivations  are given within this period followed by a hand weeding.

Harvesting and threshing

Prosomillet is a short duration crop and is ready for harvesting after 65 - 75 days of sowing. Delay in harvesting leads to considerable loss due to shattering. The harvesting is done when two third of seeds are ripened. The crop is uprooted or cut close to the ground, dried and threshed with hand or under the feet of bullocks.

Yield

Under good agronomical practices 20 - 25 q grain and 50-60 q straw per hectare can be obtained.

Rabi maize cultivation

 Dear farmers

Rabi maize favourably responds to better crop management. Rabi yield is higher than Kharif. The average temperature during the growing season should not go below 12°C and there should be no frost.

Sowing time - October to mid November

Sowing method - Sowing on ridges

Sowing direction - Southern side of the East - West ridge

Seed rate/ha - 20 - 22 kg

Spacing - 60×18 cm

Sowing depth - 4-5 cm

Plant population/ha - 90000

Seed treatment

Soaking of seed over night in warm water (45°C at the time of soaking)

Intercultural operation

1 or 2 intercultural operations i.e. hoeing and weeding should be performed.

Fertilizer management

120:60:40 kg NPK dose per hectare is recommended. 30 kg N and full P and K are given at the time of sowing. 60 kg N at knee-height stage and remaining 30 kg N is given at flag leaf stage.

Irrigation

Six irrigations are given to the Rabi maize crop.

• Two irrigations upto flowering
• One at the time of flowering
• Two after flowering
• One at early grain filling stage

Cropping systems

Maize - Potato

Maize - Wheat

Maize - Potato - Wheat

Maize - Wheat - Sugarcane

Maize - Wheat - Jowar - Sugarcane

Maize - Potato - Sugarcane - Wheat

Harvesting and threshing

Maize is harvested when cob sheath turns brownish and grains become hard containing less than 20 per cent moisture. In hybrids and composites, sheath becomes brown, loose and silk dried completely. In most of the varieties, plants remain green even at full maturity. Maize is harvested either by plucking the cobs from the standing plant or by cutting the stalk and plucking the cobs from the plant. The cobs are dried in sun for 7-8 days. The threshing is done by bitting the cobs with sticks or with the help of corn shelter.

Yield

Under rain-fed situation maize yield 20-25 q/ha grains for hybrids and 15 - 20 q for composites. However, under irrigation, hybrids and composites yielded 50 - 60 and 45 - 50 q/ha respectively.

To ensure high yield-

• Maintain optimum plant population
• Better water management
• Favourable temperature
• Better response to nutrients
• Less incidence of insect - pests and diseases
• Less weed competition should be maintained

Read about Soybean cultivation

                      Sorghum cultivation

                      Brinjal cultivation

                      

Vermicomposting

Dear farmers,

                         Vermicomposting is a simple biotechnology process of composting, in which certain species of earthworms are used to enhance the process of waste conversion and produce a better end product. Vermicomposting is the process of recycling organic matter into nutrient rich compost using worms. It is carried out generally under aerobic condition.

Vermicompost is a stable organic manure produced as vermicast by earthworm feeding on biological waste materials. It is an efficient recycling process of animal, agricultural and industrial wastes. Vermicompost is a mixture of worm cast, humus, live earthworms and their cocoons. The major constituents are essential micro and macro nutrients enzymes vitamins antibiotics humic acid and growth hormones.

    Vermicompost is an important source of organic manure. It helps in recycling any organic waste into a useful organic fertilizer and use no chance of environmental pollution. It is an eco friendly, non toxic product consumes low energy input while processing. It reduces incidence of pests and diseases in crop production. It improves quality of agricultural produce.

Steps in vermicomposting

Mixing of waste mixture with cow dung

• In preparation of waste mixture, animal and plant based organic wastes are mixed together.
• Before mixing,the plant wastes generally undergoes size reduction by cutting or crushing.
• After size reduction the plant based organic wastes are mixed with animal based organic waste like cow dung
• The preparation of cow dung in waste mixture must be minimum 30%. Under unlimited supply of cow dung, the share may go up to 70%.

Layout of vermicompost bed

Shape: Rectangular

Length: 10-15ft

Width: 3.5-4.0ft

Depth: 1.0-1.5ft

A vermicompost bed can be made of bamboo, cement and plastic.

Loading of wastes mixture and earthworms in bed

• The waste materials immediately after mixing or after pre-demposition, are dead in the bed in a heap with the maximum height of 1.5 feet.
• Thereafter, a thin layer of cow dung is placed on the surface of waste materials as starter food for earthworms.

In the bed, after checking inside temperature (should not exceed 35°C) of the heaped material, the earth was are released on the bed surface (minimum of 2 kg per bed or 2000-2500 in number). However, if available if, the quantity can be increased upto 10 kg per bed.

Vermicompost accelerators

The microorganisms multiplied in the laboratory are mixed with organic wastes truly before putting in the bed some important fungal species are Paeciliomyces fusisporus, Phaenerocete crysosporium, Trichoderma viride and Bacillus polymixa.

Maintenance of moisture

Regular supply of water in the bed should be done to maintain 80% percent moisture content. Watering can be done manually or by installation of automated micro sprinkler system.

      However, the tolerance limit of temperature difference with type of earthworm species (generally 20-35°C). For stability of optimum temperature and moisture in the bed, both under extreme arid and temperate climate, the bed can be covered with an insulating materials like gunny bag, coconut coir mat etc. with moisturing at regular interval. Vermicomposting takes 2 to 3 months to complete.

Harvesting

The harvesting is generally done manually by using a shovel and loaded on hand trolley.

Earthworm separation

The separation of earthworm from vermicompost is generally manually or by mechanical process.

Manual process

The heap method is used for manual separation of vermicompost.

• Vermicompost after harvest is heaped in a dome shape in open space on cement floor under bright sunlight with height a about 2 to 3 feet.
• worms move to the lower layers as they are light sensitive, thus facilitating harvest of compost from a upper surface. This process is repeated 3-4 Times.
• All adult worms migrate to the base of heap and can be separated.
• This process is time consuming.

Mechanical process

• The earthworms are separated by sieving using a wire net of 2-3 mm in size.
• in separation process the earthworms remain above the net and the vermicompost first below on the floor and are collected.
• The sieving unit may vary in size and its operational processes.
• The sieving frame including stand and net can be placed on a simple platform or a spring loaded platform run by motorized shaker.

Also read Tomato cultivation

Cluster bean cultivation (forage purpose)

Cluster bean is a very important, drought resistant kharif and summer legume of the arid and semi-arid regions. It is hardy, quick growing and can tolerate high moisture, low fertility and soil salinity to some extent. The pods are used for vegetable purpose. The grains are used for high protein concentrate feed for animals or for extraction of gal actomannan gum as a binding agent in many textile industries and foodstuff uses. The seed contains 31 to 43% monogalectan  gum which is cheaper and higher than other sources. It is used for green manuring. Because of its vigorous growth it quickly cover the land and reduces soil erosion. It is also used for making silage with sorghum, maize etc.

Climate and soil

Climate

Cluster bean tolerates high moisture stress. It is well adapted to arid and semi-arid regions. A well distributed rainfall of about 150 to 200 mm during growing season can meet the water requirement of crop. It cannot with stand water logging and excessive moisture.

Soil

It does not well on sandy loams to deep clay loam soils. The soil should be well drained. It tolerates moderate salinity and soil pH upto 8.5. the soil should be rich in Phosphorus potassium and calcium.

Land preparation

Minimum land preparation is required for cluster bean. Cultivation to a depth of 10 to 12 cm deep is sufficient in dry farming areas. One to two harrowings are enough.

Seed rate and spacing

The seed rate varies with the method of sowing. Broadcasting requires 45 to 50 kg and drilling 35 to 40 kg/ha. The crop is sown in mixture with sorghum, pearl millet, hybrid napier, spear grass as forage crop. When it is sown in mixture, the normal seed rate is reduced to half. The sowing should be done at a row spacing of 30 to 40 cm.

Method of sowing

The seeds are either broadcast and mixed with plough or harrow. In dry farming areas the seeds are sown in open furrows to facilitate quicker germination as there is better retention of moisture in the furrows.

Nutrient management

The land should be manured with 10 ton farmyard manure or compost before sowing. Besides 15kg N, 40kg P2O5, 20kg K2O should be applied as basal.

Water management

Kharif crop in fact does not require irrigation unless there is long dry spell. Summer crop needs frequent irrigation depending upon soil type, climate etc. The crop requires 20 to 25 cm per hectare in 4 to 5 irrigations.

Weed management

A crop under better management grows quickly and suppresses the weeds. However, one to two hoeings and weeding depending upon weed intensity ensures good growth. Chemical weed control in pure stand consists pre-emergence application of Atrazine @ 0.5 kg a.i./ha under irrigated condition. Broad leaved weed in the standing crop can be controlled by spring 2,4-D @ 1.0 kg/ha after 5 to 6 weeks of sowing.

Harvesting

The crop should be harvested at boot leaf stage or immediately after few plants of flowered for fodder. The harvesting should not be delayed beyond 50% flowering as crude protein decreases and crude fibre increases. In multi cut management, first cut is taken at boot leaf stage and subsequently at the interval of 35 to 40 days.

Yield

Good crop yields 350 to 400 quintals of green fodder per hectare. However, under multicut management, the yield goes as high as 700 quintals per hectare.

Also read about Pearl millet cultivation (forage purpose), Sorghum cultivation, Soybean cultivation, Pigeon pea cultivation

Pearl millet cultivation (forage purpose)

Pearl millet is also known as bulrush millet, spikal millet, African millet or cattail millet. It is quick growing short duration crop. It is outstanding summer growing fodder crop for dry farming areas due to high tillering, drought tolerance, heat tolerance, high photosynthetic efficiency, versatile adaptation to soil types, high dry matter production. The crude protein content at flowering is as high as 15%. The herbage cut at early flowering stage contains 6.8 - 12.8% CP, 0.9 - 1.8% EF, 29 - 34% CF, 41 - 52% NFE, 0.29 - 0.69% Ca and 0.47 - 0.84% P.

Climate and soil

Climate

Pearl millet requires warm and dry weather. High temperature is required for rapid growth especially at latter stages of growth. It can grow in areas receiving 250 to 800 mm rainfall . Due to extensive and deep root system, crop can with stand considerable moisture stress. Heavy rain, prolonged cloudiness, high humidity and colder conditions are detrimental to its growth.

Soil

It can grow on alluvial sandy soils to red and medium black soils. The soil should be well drained. Acid, alkali and low-lying areas should be avoided.

Land Preparation

Pearl millet requires firm and fine seed bed. It does not require intensive or deep cultivation.  One ploughing and a harrowing is sufficient to obtain good seed bed.

Seed rate and spacing

Pearl millet is sown at a spacing of 25 to 30 cm within the rows using seed rate of 20 kg per hectare.

Sowing method

It is sown by drilling the seeds in line with the help of seed drill. It is grown either as pure crop or mixture with cow pea, velvet bean and moth. Two rows of Bajra are alternated with two rows of legume. The seed rate should be reduced to half to their normal rates.

Seed treatment

The seeds should be treated with 30% common salt solution(Brine solution) to remove the diseased seeds and to avoid incidence of ergot. The seeds are also treated with thiram or captan @ 3 g per kg of seeds to control downy mildew disease.

Nutrient management

The crop should be manured with 10-12 t/ha FYM before sowing. For high yields and better herbage 60:30:20 kg NPK per hectare at the time of sowing and 30 kg nitrogen per hectare one month after sowing should be applied.

Water management

Kharif crop generally does not require any irrigation. In summer, irrigation may be given every fortnight depending upon growth stage, soil type and climate.

Weed management

A crop under better management grows quickly and suppresses the weeds. However, one to two hoeing and weddings depending upon weed intensity and ensures good growth.

Chemical weed control in pure stand consists pre-emergence application of Atrazine @ 0.5 kg a.i./ha under irrigated condition. Broad leaved weed in the standing crop can be controlled by spraying 2,4-D @ 1 kg per hectare after 5 to 6 weeks of sowing.

Harvesting

The crop should be harvested at boot leaf stage or immediately after few plants have flowered. The harvesting should not be delayed beyond 50% flowering as crude protein decreases and crude fibre increases. In multi cut management, first cut is taken at boot leaf stage and subsequently at the interval of 35 to 40 days.

Yield

Good crop yields 350 to 400 quintal green fodder per hectare. However, under multicut management, the yield goes as high as 700 q/ha.

Read about Sorghum cultivation, 

Pigeonpea cultivation, 

Soybean cultivation,

Tomato cultivation,

Brinjal cultivation,

Niger cultivation

Sorghum cultivation

 Dear farmers,

                           Sorghum is a major food grain crop in the world. It is a staple food for humans. It is also used as parched and popped grain. It serves as an important source of cattle feed and fodder. The grains are fed to cattle, poultry and swine. Sorghum grain contains 10-12% of protein, 3% fat and 70% carbohydrates.

Growth stages

1. Seedling stage 

Germination takes place in 4-5 days after sowing. The emergence of coleoptile indicates seedling stage.

2. Flag leaf stage

3-4 leaves with fully expanded leaf area (40-45 DAS).

3. Boot stage

Ear head covered with sheath i.e. under flag leaf (45-60 DAS).

4. Soft dough

Endosperm filled with watery fluid. It is called milky stage (70-85 DAS).

5. Hard dough

Three fourth of grain weight accumulated, grain contents relatively solid.

6. Physiological maturity

Maximum dry weight of grain and plant attained (85-95 DAS).

Climatic requirements

Sorghum requires warm climate, but can be grown under a wide range of climatic conditions. In temperate region, it is grown during summer, however in the tropics it is sown throughout the year . It needs about 26-30°C temperature for its optimum growth. The minimum temperature for germination is 7-10°C. However, the yield is adversely affected when the mean temperature exceeds 26°C during heading period. It is well adapted to semiarid regions with a minimum annual precipitation 350-400 mm as well as rainfall ranging from 400-1000 mm. It can tolerate drought conditions very well as it remains dormant during moisture stress. It can also tolerate waterlogging. Sorghum at the boot leaf stage is very sensitive to temperature, but less sensitive to soil stress than during flowering.

Soil

Sorghum is grown on a wide range of soils, but medium to deep soils having good water retention capacity are best suited for growing sorghum. It may tolerate mild acidity to mild salinity and can grow with wide a range of soil pH (5.5 to 8.5). The black cotton soils of central India are very good for cultivation of sorghum.

Land preparation

Deep ploughing to a depth of 20-25 cm with mould board plough soon after Rabi crop and keeping soil exposed to the sun until the onset of monsoon is a common practice. Then, it should be followed by 2-3 harrowings. If necessary planking should be done to break the clods and to level the field. Stubbles and other plant remains should be collected and removed from the field.

Seed rate and spacing

Seed rate largely depends on the type of cultivar, duration and the purpose for which it is grown. Old varieties require less seed rate than hybrid sorghum. Seed rate of 8-10 kg/ha found optimum for varieties and 10-12 kg/ha for hybrids. Seeds should not be not be sown more than 5 cm deep. The sowing depth should be 3-4 cm.

Sowing method

The crop is sown either by broadcasting or by drilling the seeds behind the plough. Seeds of hybrids and varieties always be sown in rows for getting maximum yield. Sorghum is a tall growing crop and shading cannot be avoided. The sowing is therefore done at sunrise and sunset direction. It does not cast shadows over the plant of the same row or on the side of the row.

Seed treatment

Seed treatment with Thiram or Agrosan G. N. @ 3 g per kg seed is necessary to protect the crop from fungal diseases like grain smut. Always use certified seed and should be purchased from the reliable source such seed is always treated with.

Manures and fertilizers

Manures and fertilizer play important role in crop production. Sorghum is an exhaustive crop and it depletes soil fertility very fast. The fertilizer dose differs from type and nature of the crop. Local varieties need less than a hybrid. Similarly, the rain-fed crop needs less dose than irrigated crop. 10-15 tonnes of FYM or compost should be applied to soil before last harrowing. It improts water holding capacity and microbial population in the soil. Before application of fertilizer soil test should be carried out. Rain-fed high yielding and local varieties under irrigation should be applied at sowing. The fertilizer should be placed 3-4 cm to the side and 3-4 cm below the seed. The remaining half quantity of nitrogen should be top dressed after 30-35 days of sowing or at knee- height stage uptake of nitrogen is highest at the soft dough stage. Phosphorus uptake continues into the grain filling stage. However, potassium uptake is higher in the early stage than that of nitrogen or phosphorus.

Iron and zinc are the commonly deficient micro nutrients in sorghum. Iron deficiency is commonly found in calcareous soils. In zinc deficient soil application of 25-50 kg/ha of zinc sulphate at the time of sowing is recommended.

Thinning

Optimum plant population is important for achieving maximum yield. The first thing should be done 10-15 days after emergence and second when the crop is 20-25 days old.

Weed management

The critical period of crop weed competition is 15-35 days after sowing. If the weeds are not controlled at the proper time, there is 20-60% reduction in the yield depending on the weed intensity. Sorghum is infested with Echinochloa crusgulli, Setaria glauca, Cynodon dactylon, Elensine indica, Phragmites karka etc. Both grassy and broad leaved weeds grow with sorghum during kharif. Hoeing and manual weeding should be done to remove weeds. Pre-emergence application of atrazine @ 0.5 to 1.0 kg ai/ha controls the weeds effectively. The weedicide  should be mixed with 900-1000 litres of water and sprayed on the soil at the time of spraying. Propazine (1.0-1.5 kg) can also be used as pre-emergence application. However, for post-emergence application, Trifluralin (0.8-1.2 kg) and Halosulfaron (30-40 g) are suitable. PPI of fenac, or 2,3,6, TBA or PRE herbicides simazine and propazine can give effective control of striga.

Irrigation

Sorghum is a drought resistant crop but cannot withstand water logging at any stage. Knee-height, flowering and grain filling are the most critical growth stages for irrigation if there is no enough moisture in the soil. No stage plant should be allowed to wilt. Kharif crop does not require irrigation but if there is long dry spell, one protective irrigation should be given. During rabi and summer, irrigation should be given as and when required. Suitable drainage must be provided for removal of excess of water from the field. In general, scheduling irrigation at 50% DASM or at IW / CPE ratio of 0.6 is optimum for sorghum.

Cropping systems

Sorghum is generally grown in kharif. Monoculture is a common practice due to moisture stress. Intercropping with sorghum with pulses or oil seeds is adopted. Paired planting in sorghum (30/60 cm) is most remunerative system. Maximum returns of soybean, greengram, groundnut, in paired rows of 30/90 cm with two rows of inter crop in 90 cm space. Sorghum- safflower in 6:3 or 4:2 is better in rabi. CSH-6 is the best variety of sorghum for intercropping. Some of the intercropping systems with sorghum are given below.

Sorghum-wheat-mung

Sorghum-pea

Sorghum-gram

Sorghum-potato-wheat

Sorghum-cotton

Sorghum-tobacco

Sorghum-sorghum(rabi)

Sorghum-ragi-groundnut

Harvesting and threshing

Sorghum matures in 100-115 days. Harvesting should be done when the grains have become hard and contains 15-20% moisture. Do not wait for stalks and leaves to dry as stalks and leaves remain green and succulent in most of the cultivars though grains already mature. Harvesting is done by cutting the entire plant or removing the cob first and cutting down the plant later on. Harvested ear heads are dried in the sun for a day or two until grain moisture content drops to around 12%. Threshing is done with the help of threshers or by beating the year heads with sticks or trampling bullocks.

Yield

Sorghum yields 25-30 q of grain and 80-100 q of dry stover per ha from rain-fed crop. Under irrigation grain yield is 50 q and stover yield is 100-125 q/ha.

Read about Soybean cultivation

Whitefly control

Dear farmers,

                          Whitefly is a major pest these days all over the world. It causes the damage to all major crops like cotton, sugarcane etc cash crop and variety of other different crops like beans, cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, cucumber, eggplant, peppers, , tomamelon, squash, tomato and watermelon. They also infest crop such as alfalfa. The main hazard of whitefly is that it transmitts various viruses from plant to plant while feeding. Hence it is also called as vector.

                   Whitefly is a sucking type pest on the crops. It sucks the nutrients from phloem of the susceptible plant leaves occasionally leading to the curling and drying of the leaves which altimately causes death of plant.

Prevention of whitefly

               Though whitefly is impossible to prevent from emerging in the field, following measures would definitely reduce it's population in the field.

1). During early vegetative growth phase of crop, avoid excessive use of urea.

2). Destroy ratoon plants as well as weed hosts growing near the irrigation channel and fallow lands.

3). Monitor whitefly on alternate hosts such as vegetables, ornamentals, weeds and plantation crops starting from pre-sowing.

4). Maintain field sanitation by keeping fields, bunds, and the vicinity free of weeds before and after sowing of cotton.

5). Install yellow sticky traps 20/ha during July to August.

6). Vacuum suction pumps can be used during August coinciding with high whitefly population.

7). Avoid using synthetic pyrethroids or organophosphate or any other insecticide mixture. These insecticides are known to cause and aggravate resurgence of whitefly when used indiscriminately.

Chemical control

Following are some recommended insecticide spray.

Diafenthiuron 50% WP, Buprofezin 25% SC, Spiromesifen 22.9% SC, Pyriproxyfen 10% EC, Flonicamid 50% WG, Clothianidian 50% WDG after mid August. These insecticides are effective on whitefly and are relatively safer to its natural enemies.

Biological control of whitefly

Variety of insects are found to be effective biological control agents against whitefly. They are discussed as below.

1) Six spotted lady bird beetle Cheilomenes sixmaculata

Six spotted lady bird beetle general predator of cotton whitefly. The predator helps to reduce pest's population naturally.

2). Predatory spiders

Spiders kill large number of insects for feeding. Spiders also kill whitefly

Recommended biopesticide 

Beauveria bassiana (fungus) is the recommended biopesticide against whitefly (Foliar application).

Pest and diseases management in brinjal

 Pests Management

 Fruit and shoot borer, jassids ,epilachna beetle and mites are the major pests.

Fruit and shoot borer(Leucinodes orbonalis)

The larvae bore into tender parts causing drooping of young shoots and rotting of fruits. Affected plant parts should be removed along with larvae and destroyed crushing or by immersing in insecticide solution.

Jassids (Empoasca spp.)

Adults and nymphs suck sap by feeding from under surface of leave resulting in typical yellowing and drying up of leaves. Jassid resistant varieties (e.g. Punjab Barsati and Pusa Kranti in India) should be used as per locality. Biologically jussids are controlled by Beauveria bassiana @ 7-10 g/lit water and spread on the foliage. Chemical control is done by thiamethoxam, Imidacloprid, diafenthiuron, acetamiprid which are effective after 7 days of application.

Epilachna beetle

Yellow coloured nymphs seen on under surface leaves feed on foliage resulting in skeletonization of leaves. Since nymph are seen in large numbers on a single leaf plucking infested leaves along with nymph is an effective way control of pest. 

               Five sprays of cipermethrin @ 30 g a.i./ha or ethofenprox @ 75 g a.i/ha at 15 days interval starting from 30 DAT is effective for control of jassid and fruit and shoot borer. Four sprays of 

carbaryl (800 g a.i/ha) at days interval starting from 30 DAT is also equally effective for controlling pest.

Mites

Red spider mites and other mites seen on under surface of leaf suck sap and cause characteristic yellowing. Spray of neem oil garlic solution in initial stage of attack is effective for control of mites. Under severe infestation spray Kelthane (0.03%) or metasystox (0.03%).

Diseases Management

Diseases like Bacterial wilt, Fusarium wilt, phomopsis blight, little leaf, mosaic and damping off are the major diseases in brinjal

Bacterial wilt (Ralstonia solanacearum)

Disease results in sudden wilting and drying up of plants. Plants are more affected during flowering and early fruiting stages. Grow resistant varieties like Swetha, Haritha, Arka Nidhi, Arka Neelkant, Pant Samrat, Utkal Tarini, Utkal Madhuri and F1 hybrid Neelima in wilt prone areas in tropical and subtropical areas of Asia and for other countries use suitable bacterial wilt resistant varieties developed by local agricultural authorities.

Fungal wilt

Fungi like Fusarium and Verticillium cause wilting of plants. Lower leaves turn yellow and progress slowly leading to browning and complete death of plants. Pythium and Phytophthora also cause collar rot and wilting of. plants Crop rotation burning with dry leaves prior to planting and drenching the soil with copper oxychloride are effective for control of wilt.

Phomopsis blight

This is a major disease particularly when crop is raised for seed production. Soft and water soaked brown lesions of fruits which turn black and mummified in appearance are the common symptoms. Leaves and stem may also develop dark brown spots. Seed treatment with Bavistin (l g a.i./kg) and seedling dip in Bavistin (0.05%) for 30 minutes before transplanting, followed by two sprays of Bavistin are recommended for control of disease.

Little leaf

Diseased plants produce small sized leaves and result in bushy and stunted growth and will not produce fruits.

Mosaic

Uproot and destroy mosaic and little leaf affected plants as soon as symptoms are noticed. Avoiding ratooning and raising seedlings in seed beds treated with Phorate (1.25 kg a.i./ha), treating seedlings with systemic insecticides for eight hours followed by application of Phorate(1.25 kg a.i./ha) at 21 DAT control both little leaf and mosaic.

Damping off

This is a major nursery disease. Affected seedlings topple over and die in patches. For reducing disease incidence sow seeds as loose/ thin as possible on raised beds. Adequate drainage are drenching nursery bed with  Bavistin(0.1 %) control disease effectively.

Tomato Cultivation

Dear farmers, 

                         Tomato occupies a prime position in list of protective foods since it is a rich source of minerals like calcium (48 mg / 100g), sodium (12.9 mg), trace elements, copper (0.19 mg), vitamins like vitamin A (900 IU), vitamin C (27 mg), vitamin B complex (thiamine), essential amino acids and healthy organic acids like citric, formic and acetic acids. The attractive red colour of fruit is due to lycopene and yellow colour is due to carotenes. Peculiar flavour of tomato is due to presence of ethanol, acetaldehyde and a number of volatile flavour components found in fruit. Different forms of tomatine, a steroidal glycoalkaloid, are identified from various parts of plant. Tomato is a good appetizer and its soup is a good remedy for preventing constipation.

Climate

Tomato is a day neutral warm season crop, which cannot tolerate frost. Cool and dry weather is preferred by the crop and optimum temperature is 21-28°C during day and 15-20°C during night.

        Night temperature is more critical than day temperature. High temperature results in exerted stigma, dryness of stigma, burning of anther tip, poor pollen dehiscence, low pollen 

viability and slow pollen tube growth leading to low pollination and fruit set. Incidence of viral 

diseases also will be more at high temperature. Optimum temperature for colour development 

of fruit is 21-24°C. Development of colouring pigment, lycopene will be hampered above 27°C. 

Seed germination and pollen germination are adversely effected below 10°C.

Sowing time and seed rate

Time

In mild climatic conditions, where there is no danger of frost, three crops can be raised in a year. In the hills, seeds are usually sown in March-April. In plains is grown during June to November.

Seed rate

Open pollinated variety: 400-500 g / ha.

Indeterminate F2 hybrid: 125-175 g / ha.

Seeds sown in an area of 4-5 cents (200-240 m²) will be sufficient to plant one hectare. Four to five weeks old seedlings are used. Hardening of seedling is essential for their establishment in main field and is done by withholding irrigation for one week before transplanting, adding NaC1 (400 ppm) to irrigation water or by spray of cycocel (200 ppm) and Zinc Sulphate (0.25%) + 25 ppm proline at time of transplanting.

Land preparation

Seedlings are transplanted on raised beds or on sides of ridges. Field is ploughed 4-5 times and raised beds of 80-90 cm width or ridges and furrows are prepared. Spacing depends on the growth habit (determinate, indeterminate or semi determinate) of variety and various spacing followed are 60 x 30-45 cm, 75 x 60 cm and 75 x 75 cm. Usually closer spacing results in early and higher yield, but it may effect size of fruits.

Nutrient management

Manure and fertilizer recommendation for tomato depends on the growth habit and 

productivity of variety and it varies from state to state. In most of states, in addition to 15-20 

tonnes of FYM, 100-125 kg, N, 50-60 kg P2O5 and 50-60 kg K2O are recommended for one 

hectare. Recommendation for F1 hybrid is 250:250:250 kg NPK/ha.

FYM should be incorporated in soil at the time of final ploughing. 1/3 N, Full P and K 

may be applied as basal dose either just before transplanting or 5-10 days after transplanting. 

Remaining 2/3 N is applied 20 and 45 days there after. In boron and zinc deficient soils, additional dose of 10 kg borax and 5 kg Zinc Sulphate, as basal dose, are also recommended for correcting fruit cracking and to increase yield and fruit quality.

Irrigation

Furrow irrigation is the most common method in tomato and the crop require adequate moisture throughout growth period. Frequency of irrigation depends on the climatic and soil 

conditions. During summer, crop should be irrigated at 3-4 days interval. Water stress at 

flowering stage will adversely effect fruiting and productivity. A long spell of drought followed by 

heavy irrigation leads to cracking of fruits. Similarly a dry spell after regular irrigation causes blossom end rot. Drip irrigation and sprinkler irrigation are becoming more common in areas of water shortage.

Inter-cultivation

Field should be kept weed free by frequent weeding, hoeing and earthing up. Application of pendimethalin (1.0 kg a.i. / ha) as pre emergence spray along with one hand weeding at 45 DT is ideal for tomato variety Pusa Ruby. Oxyfluorfen (0.25 kg a.i. / ha) Goal (0.25 kg a.i./ha) and Basalin (1.0 kg a.i. / ha) were also ideal as pre emergence application. Post emergence spray of Sencor (0.5 kg a.i./ha) was also effective at the All India Coordinated trials. Mulching with straw or plastic is also effective for weed control and for regulating soil temperature.

Training and pruning

All indeterminate varieties are trained with wires, strings or stacks to prevent lodging and 

loss of fruits by coming in contact with soil. It is done by providing individual stack or by erecting 2-2.5 m long poles on either side of ridges for stretching G1 wire. Branches of plants are supported on poles or strings with twine. Pruning is also generally followed in indeterminate varieties to improve size, shape and quality of fruits. It is removal of unwanted shoots to enhance vigor of plants.

Plant growth regulators

Plant growth regulators are beneficial for early yield, increased fruit set at extreme 

temperatures and to impart resistance to viral diseases. However, their effect is not seen 

consistent and varied with genotype, climate, location etc. Some of the growth regulators found useful in tomato production are :

Purpose       Growth regulator  Mode and time of

                                                              application

                                                         

High yield    GA1 (5-25 ppm)       Seed treatment

                        PCPA (10-20ppm)

                        DNOA (25-50ppm) 

                        GA (10 ppm)                Foliar spray

                        NAA (1000 ppm)

                        PCPA (50 ppm)

                        24 D (5 ppm)

 

                        Cytocyme (0.25%)

Increased     NAA (0.1 ppm)          Seedling soaking

fruit set.                                                   for 24 hours

Increased     IAA (50 ppm)

fruit set

In summer    Borax (1.0%)

For increasing  PCPA 50-100 ppm   Foliar spray at 

fruit set at low                                      flower cluster

temperature

Ripening of    Ethrel 1000 ppm       Whole plant 

fruits                                                 spray at initiation

                                                               of ripening.

Harvesting

Crop starts yielding by 70 days after planting. Usually fruits are harvested with hand by 

a gentle twist so that the stalk is retained on plant. Intervals of harvests depend on season and it is twice in a week during summer and weekly during winter and rainy days. Harvesting 

maturity depends on the purpose whether for fresh market, processing, long distance transport 

etc. Following maturity standards are recognized in tomato:

1) Mature green: Fruits fully grown, fruit colour changes from green to yellowish and cavity 

filled with seeds surrounded by gelly like substance. Harvested for long distance 

market.

2) Turning or breaker stage: Fruits firm, 1/4th portion of fruit changes to pink in colour, but 

the shoulder still yellowish green. Harvested for long distance market.

3) Pink stage: 3/4th of whole fruit surface turns pink colour. Harvested for local market.

4) Light red: Entire fruit surface is red or pink but the flesh is firm. Harvested for local 

market.

5) Red ripe or hand ripe: Fully ripened and coloured. Flesh becomes soft. Harvested for 

processing and for seed extraction.

Yield

Open pollinated varieties : 20-25 t/ha.

F1 hybrids : 50 t/ha.

Storage and marketing

Fruits after harvesting are graded and packed in bamboo baskets or wooden boxes. Since tomato is a climatic fruit, good care should be taken to remove bruised, cracked and damaged fruits before packing in baskets. Though tomato can be stored at low temperature, commercially it is not stored in cold storages in the country due to practical reasons. Fruits can be stored for-two weeks and four weeks at 10-13°C when harvested at red stage and green stage respectively. Pre-cooling of fruits before storage and transportation enhances storage life.

Processing tomatoes

Use of tomato for processing is increasing day by day and a variety of products like puree, paste, syrup, juice, ketchup etc are made. Varieties for processing should have following qualities.

1) Deep red colour which retains even after processing.

2) Low pH – The acidity of fruits affect-heating time required for sterilization of processed product. Longer time is required if pH is high and hence a pH below 4-5 is required for processing.

3) High TSS – Fruits with high TSS yield more finished products / tonne of raw fruits and hence minimum TSS should be 4.5°B.

4) High viscosity and consistency.

5) Firm and easy peeling.

6) Pericarp thickness-should be more than0.5 cm.

7) Crack resistance.

8) Fruits size should be above 50 g and oblong in shape.

Physiological disorders

Fruit cracking

Fruit cracking is caused both by genetic and environmental factors. Following four types 

of cracking are noticed tomato.

1) Radial Cracking: Usually seen at ripe stage and crack radiate from pedicel end to stylar 

end.

2) Concentric cracking: Seen around shoulder of fruit even at green stage.

3) Cuticular: Seen on outer skin of fruit.

4) Burst: Burst occurs at certain points on shoulder of fruit.

                Radial and concentric cracking are more common of which, former is more damaging. A long spell of drought followed by sudden heavy irrigation may cause cracking. Wide variation in 

day and night temperatures and high humidity  also cause fruit cracking.

                Many crack resistant varieties like Crack Proof, Ohio 832, Sioux, Manulucie, Anagha etc. were developed at various research organizations. Fruits of crack resistant varieties have thick pericarp or cuticle and fruit skin with high elasticity and less acidity. Pectin content in resistant varieties ranges from 0.8 to 1.6% compared to 0.54% in susceptible ones. High pectin concentration makes fruit less rigid and more pliable.

Water soaked spots of one cm or more appear at point of attachment of petals and effected portion becomes sunken, leathery and dark coloured. This is mainly due to reduced soil moisture supply and high rate of respiration at the time of fruit development. Deficiency of calcium also causes this disorder. Balanced irrigation, cultural practices to conserve soil moisture and spraying of 0.5% calcium chloride at fruit development stage are recommended for control of blossom end rot.

Sun scald

Due to extreme heat, tissues on exposed fruit develop a blistered appearance leading to sunken areas, which have a light or grey colour on green fruit and yellow colour on red fruit. In varieties with heavy foliage, fruits are shaded and incidence of sun scald is less.

Niger cultivation

Dear farmers,

                        Niger (Guizotia abyssinica) is used for extraction of oil(75%). Niger oil is similar to safflower and sunflower oil in edible quality. The seed contains 35-40% oil. Oil is used for manufacturing paints and soft soaps, lighting and lubrication and for manufacturing cosmatics. It is a good substitute for sesame oil for pharmaceutical purposes. Niger plant is consumed by sheep and not by cattle. It is used for making silage. Niger cake is valuable feed for milch cattle. It is also used as manure also.

Climate

It is a temperate region crop and also grows in semi tropical environment. It is short day plant. It is mostly a rainfed crop. Optimum rainfall is 1000-1300 mm. Niger needs moderate temperature of 18-23°C. Above 30°C, growth and flowering are adversely affected and maturity is hastens. Below 10°C, seed emergence is restricted leading to inadequate plant stand.

Soils

Niger can grow on all types of soils from Sandy to deep clay loam. But thrive best on clayey loams or sandy clays. The gram prefers light textured soil but we'll drained heavy soils also used for niger cultivation. It produces reasonable yield on water logged soils and relative Lee with low fertility status. The crop grows well in soils having PH 5.2 to 7.3.

Land preparation

Being a small sided crop fine seed bead is required for sowing. Good tilth for sowing is obtained by one ploughing and two harrowings.

Seed rate and spacing 

Seed rate depends on method of sowing. Generally 8 kg seed per hectare is required for broadcasting. Line sowing recommended spacing is 30 cm between the rows and 10 cm between the plants. However, it is sown at 30×15, 20×15 and 20×20 cm spacing at different parts of the country. The optimum plant population varies from 2.5 to 3.0 lakh plants per ha.

Seed treatment

Seeds should be treated with Thiram or Captan @ 3 g/kg of seed to protect the crop from seed and soil borne diseases.

Sowing method

Crop is either sown by broadcasting or in furrow behind country plough or using seed drill. The seeds are smaller in size and therefore mixed with sand or soil by working blade harrow. The sowing depth should not be more than 1-3 cm.

Nutrient management

The crop is mostly grown on marginal and submarginal lands without manure or fertilizer application. For getting higher yields 20:20:0 kg NP per hectare should be applied. Half dose of nitrogen along with entire dose of phosphorus should be given as basal dose at sowing time. The remaining half dose of nitrogen should be top dressed about 30 DAS.

Water management

Niger is invariably grown in rainy season. Moisture stress during seedling stage effects growth of crop than other stages. Irrigation is to be scheduled according to the soil and climatic conditions. Irrigation at seedling stage is essential. Thereafter irrigation may be given according to need of the crop.

Weed management

Niger grows rapidly once the seedlings are established two weedings and hoeings are sufficient to control weeds. First at the time of thinning (15DAS) and second before top dressing of nitrogen (before bud initiation).

            At some places like Orissa in India dodder has become a problematic parasitic weed. The weed emerges along with the germinating seeds of niger. Application of Propyzamide as post-emergence @ 1.5 -2.0 kg/ha after 20-25 DAS control dodder to 90%. Pre-emergence application of Pronamide @ 2 kg ai/ha so control the weed effectively.

Harvesting and threshing

Niger measures in about 80-145 days. The harvesting is done when the leaves driup and the head turns blackish. Then dried in sun for about a week by stacking on the threshing floor. Threshing is done manually or by trealing under the feet of bullock.

Yield

Pure crop of niger yields 4.0-5.0 quintal seed/ha. As an inter crop the yield is 1.50-3.00 quintal/ha.

Cropping systems

Niger is grown as a sole crop or sown as mixed crop with various pulses and grain crops.

Inter cropping

Niger+ fingermillet (6:3)

Niger+ groundnut (3:3/6:3)

Niger+ Soybean (3:3/6:3)

Niger+ black gram (2:2)

Niger+ pigeonpea (3:2)

Niger+ sorghum (2:2)

Niger+ sunflower (4:2)

Sequence cropping

Finger millet-Niger

Horse gram- Niger

Rice-Niger

Little millet-Niger

Soybean cultivation

Dear farmers,

                         Soybean is cheapest, easiest and richest source of best quality proteins and fats with multipurpose uses as food and industrial product. It is therefore called as wonder crop. It is considered as highly nutritive crop containing 40% high quality protein and 20%  oil. Soybean protein is rich in amino acid and lycine (5%); which is deficient in most of the cereals.

Climatic requirements for soybean cultivation

Soybean is a warm season crop. Its cultivation is now extended to subtropics and temperate climates. It can grow well in areas receiving annual rainfall from 600 to 1000 mm. Soil temperature of 15.5°C or above favour rapid germination and vigorous seedling growth. The minimum temperature for effective growth is about 10°C. Lower temperature delays the flowering. Temperature of 26.5 to 30°C appears to be optimum for most of the varieties. Soybean is basically a short day plant. Day length is the key factor. They are sensitive to photoperiod. this critical photoperiod for bud initiation is around 14 hours.

Soil requirements for soybean cultivation

Soybean papers natural soil having pH between 6.5 and 7.5. It grows on variety of soils ranging from light to black cotton. Well drained and fertile loam soils are best waterlogged soils, inhibit germination of seeds. Acidic soils liming has to be done to raise the pH to 7.0. Water logging is harmful to crop.

Land preparation for soybean cultivation

Soybean requires fine seed bed with least clods. One deep plough with mould board plough followed by two harrowings are enough to obtain good seed bed. For better seedling establishment there should be sufficient moisture at the time of sowing.

Seed rate and spacing for soybean cultivation

Seed rate depends upon size of seed, test weight, spacing and method of sowing. Optimum seed rate for soybean with 80% germination is 75 kg/ha. An optimum plant population of 4,44,444 plants/ha must be maintained for higher yield. For late planting and for spring crop, seed rate should be 100-200 kg/ha.

Seed treatment for soybean cultivation

The seed should be treated with Thiram @4.5 g/ka of seed or with a mixture of Thiram + Bavistin 1:1 @ 3 g/kg of seed to reduce fungal attack.

       For efficient biological nitrogen fixation the seed is also treated with Rhizobium japonicum @ 25g/kg of seed. Moist the seed with water and mix the culture uniformly in shade just before sowing. Always fresh culture should be used. In case of virgin field the rate of culture should be 5 to 10 times then the normal dose.

Method of sowing for soybean cultivation

Sowing is done by drilling the seeds in the soil with the help of seed drill or behind the plough. The depth of sowing should not be more than 2-3 cm in heavy and 4-5 cm in light soil. If seed is sown deeper or if there is crust formation just after sowing, the germination is delayed and crop stand is poor. Planting should be done after sowing to cover the seed and provide better soil contact.

Nutrient management for soybean cultivation

The nutrient requirement of the crop vary with climate, yield potential, cropping system and management practices. Soyabean crop yielding 10 q/ha removes about 80 N, 13 P2O5, 40 K2O, 15 Ca, 12 mg and 2 S kg/ha. For obtaining good yield of soybean 15-20 tonnes of FYM or compost should be added before the last harrowing. Being a legume soybean is able to meet its nitrogen requirement from atmosphere through Rhizobium. Application of 30 kg N as a starter dose is sufficient to fulfill nitrogen requirement of the crop in the initial stage in soils which are poor in organic matter.

                 Phosphorus requirement of crop is relatively higher than other crops. The demand of phosphorus is more during pod formation to seed development. The crop should be fertilized with 70-80 kg P2O5 per hectare. Phosphorus application stimulates nodulation and bacteria becomes more mobile.

                 Potassium requirement of the crop is also more than other crops. The rate of potassium uptake is peak during vegetative growth and slows down when the pod begins to form. 50-60 kg K2O/ha should be applied.

                 All the fertilizers should be applied at the time of sowing fertiliser should be placed 5-7 cm away from the seed at a depth of 5-7 cm.

                 In zn and sulphur deficient soils, application of ZnSO4 @ 20 kg and sulphur @ 10kg/ha is necessary. Zinc deficiency can also be corrected with spraying 5 kg zinc+ 2.5 kg lime in 1000 L of water. 

Water management for soybean cultivation

Being a deep tap rooted crop it can draw moisture from about 1.8 m soil depth. Flowering and pod development are the most critical stages for moisture stress. Moisture stress at these stages results in flower and pod dropping scheduling irrigation at 50% DASM or at IW/CPE ratio of 0.6 is optimum. Generally kharif crop does not require any irrigation. However if there is long dry spell at above stages irrigation may be given. Spring crop needs about 5-6 irrigations.

Weed management for soybean cultivation

Soybean crop is sensitive to weed competition particularly in early growth stages. The most common weeds infesting the crop are grassy weeds (Echinochloa colonum, Sorghum halepense, Cyprus rotundus, Cynodon dactylon, etc). and broad leaf (Celosia argentia, Phylanthus nirun, Digitaria sp, etc.). If the weeds are not properly controlled there is reduction in the in  the yield to the extent of 40-45%. The most critical period for crop weed interference is initial 15 to 45 days. Weeds emerge after this period are suppressed by smothering action of crop. Hoeings and weedings one at 20-22 DAS and other at 40-45 DAS keeps the weed under control

Cropping system

Intercropping

Intercropping with soybean which is more for production stability than yield advantage under rainfed condition. Soybean is ideal remunerative inter crop.

1. Soyabean+ Maize (2:1,2:1)

2. Soyabean+ Finger millet (2:2)

3. Soyabean+ Groundnut (1:4,1:6)

4. Soyabean+ Pearl millet (2:4,2:6)

5. Soyabean+ Pigeonpea (2:2,4:2)

6. Soyabean+ Cotton (1:3,2:1)

7. Soyabean+ Sorghum (1:2,2:2)

          Paired row technique is the simplest way of accommodating optimum plant population of both the component crops. Case of maize+soyabean system paired rows of maize (30/90 cm) and soybean in 2:2 and paired maize (45/90 cm) and soybean in 2:2 appears ideal.

Sequence cropping

Sequence cropping on stored soil moisture is possible in deep black cotton soil.

1. Soybean-Wheat

2. Soybean-Safflower

3. Soybean-Chickpea

Yield in soybean cultivation

A good crop of soybean yields 20 to 25 quintal grains per hectare.

Integrated green manure management for cotton crop

Dear farmers,

Green manures play a very important role in increasing seed cotton yield. Short growing and low water requiring green manure crop like sunn hemp is found to be effective for sustainability of both soil fertility and crop productivity in winter irrigated cotton crop.

For this, the green manure seed is sown at the rate of 15kg/hectare and grown simultaneously with the cotton for a period of 45 days and then buried in the soil before flowering in the furrows and cotton is grown upto maturity. In this process green manure meets one third of the nitrogen (N) requirement of the cotton crop.

          The combined application of farmyard manure (FYM) @ 5 tonne/hectare and in situ green manure of sunn hemp produces highest seed cotton yield. It is approximately equal to recommended dose of NPK (60:13:25kg/ha) in respect of yield and associated traits but soil fertility status under it will be considerably improved in comparison to control or recommended NPK. 

Following are the advantages of green manure in the cotton crop field.

1. Higher growth and fibre yield due to steady nitrogen availability.

2. Efficient utilisation of interspaces before crop competition starts.

3. Weed suppression as it covers top soil and less pest and diseases.

4. Moisture conservation and its efficient utilisation through burying near the root zone.

5. Restoration of soil fertility and higher efficiency in nutrient use.

Integrated Pink Bollworm Management for cotton farmers

Dear farmers,

                          Pink Bollworm has now became a major pest for cotton crop. It feeds on cotton seeds hence causes considerable(10-30%) production loss. It occurs in mid and late stages of crop. Nowadays it is inducing early in the crop life (i.e. 45 to 60 days after sowing). Due to internal feeding behaviour it remains usually unrecognised.

To control pink bollworm

• Do not sow cotton crop in the month of April-May as it attracts the pink bollworm at early stages of crop life
• Destroy residual stalks and partially opened bolls
• While sowing use 20% non bt(refuge) seeds for sowing with bt seeds if provided separately
• Do not store infested cotton in houses/godowns
• Sowing should be done in the month of June with early maturing Bt varieties recommended for the region
• Install pheromone trap(5 traps per hectare) after 45 days after sowing to extract male individuals and to control moth activity
• Inspect the crop at the stages of squaring and flowering for the presence of pink bollworm larvae in flowers
• At boll formation stage, inspect the presence and damage caused by pink bollworm by plucking 20 green bolls from different plants randomly
• Collect and destroy fallen squares, flowers and bolls in the field
• One spray of Neem seed kernel extract 5%+ Neem oil 5ml/lit. May be taken upto 60 days after sowing
• In months of October-November release parasitoid tricogramma bactrie at the rate 60000/ acre whenever available
• Chemical control measures should be initiated as below when pest crossed ETL  (Economic Threshold Level) i.e. 10% damaged flowers (rossete flowers) or 10% damaged green bolls (at least 2 bolls out of 20 having white or pink larvae or exit holes) or 8 moths catch per pheromone trap per night for 3 consecutive days
• Picking of clean and infested cotton should be carried out separately
• Clean cotton should be stored or marketed and infected cotton should be destroyed
• Install light traps and pheromone traps near storage houses or godowns
• Destroy trapped moths during season or off season
• Terminate crop in December to mid January

Chemical control

Month                insecticide                        dose per

                                                                         10lit water

September        Quinolphos 20% AF          20ml

                             Thiodicarb 75% WP          20g

October             Chlorpyriphos 20% EC      25ml

                            Thiodicarb 75% WP           20g

November        Fenevelerate 20% EC         10ml

                              Cypermethrin 10% EC     10ml